If one day, friends see the monkey god enshrined on the shrine on the streets of Fujian, the alleys of Taiwan, or in the temples of Singapore, please don’t be surprised. This is a belief that has long existed in our country, and Sun Wukong and his prototype have been enjoying human incense for over 1000 years.
From the time Xuanzang crossed the Western Regions, his first disciple, Shi Pantuo, laid the seeds for the image of Sun Wukong in the Journey to the West.story. But the real belief of the people might be the true origin of the existence of the Monkey King.
During the time of the Erlang Shen belief in flood control in the Sichuan Basin, our belief in Sun Wukong was born in the mountainous areas of Fujian far from Central Plains culture.
The development of the belief in Sun Wukong can be summarized into several stages:
1. Local primitive worship of apes and monkeys – Tang, Song
2. Spread of the novel “Journey to the West” – Yuan, Ming
3. Fusion to create the belief in the Great Sage Equal to Heaven – Yuan, Ming
4. Spread to various regions and overseas, becoming a cultural element – Qing Dynasty, modern times
Origin of the Evil Monkey God Worship:
Fujian, located on the southeastern coast of our country, was called Min in ancient times, surrounded by mountains on three sides with the sea on the other. The paths in the mountains are rugged, and the coast is windy and rough, making life difficult for the people over the ages. In ancient agricultural societies, without the convenience of modern transportation, crossing mountains and seas was even more difficult for the ordinary people in this region. This inconvenience in transportation led to closed-off environments, resulting in local cultures that were quite different from the “orthodox and mainstream” styles of Central Plains.
The “Records of the Three Mountains” from the Song Dynasty recorded that before the Jin Dynasty, the population in the Fujian area was sparse, and not far from the city was dense forests and rivers. Few people ventured into the forests, and wild animals such as tigers, leopards, and monkeys were common. During the Tang Dynasty, there were many monkey groups near the villages, causing disturbances to the villagers engaged in farming and logging. Monkey groups needed forests, while humans needed fields, and the two constantly vied for living space. The entire Fujian region at the time was densely covered with forests where a large number of apes and monkeys multiplied, to the point where they became a “monkey disaster,” greatly disrupting the daily lives of the residents. People were both fearful and helpless against these roaming monkey groups.
These harsh natural conditions and living environments made life difficult for the people of Fujian, leading to a tradition of worshiping witchcraft and ghosts. People had to relieve the pressures of life through nature worship and belief in deities.
To avoid disasters and losses, the worship of the monkey as an idol slowly developed. The present Chongsheng Palace in Putian is said to have originated during the turmoil at the end of the Sui Dynasty. In a conflicted mindset, people worshipped the monkey god, hoping to appease the monkey god like “sending away the plague god,” to eliminate the god’s displeasure towards humans, and hope the monkey groups would not disturb their lives.
Not only that, Jade Emperor, Guanyin, Wang Ye, Dragon King, Guan Gong, Mazu, and the Great Sage Equal to Heaven from different origins have all become idols for the people, serving as their spiritual support. They represent people’s fervent hopes for improvement in life. Even if families were without surplus wealth, they still built temples and shrines, to the extent that there was a saying: “a temple every hundred steps, a temple every thousand steps.”
According to the “Tai Ping Huan Yu Ji” and the “Fuzhou Gazette” from the Song Dynasty, during the Tang Dynasty, monkeys often caused trouble in the Fujian area. They not only destroyed crops but also haunted the villages and households in the middle of the night, disturbing the people. Helpless, the common people revered the monkeys as deities and built temples for worship, which seemed to have some miraculous effects.
There were even rumors among the people that monkeys in caves would kidnap local women, causing harm to the area. This monkey in the legend was named “Danxia,” adept at changing its appearance, a monkey demon who had cultivated for a thousand years. When it was entranced by a beautiful woman, it transformed into her husband to lavish attention until the woman’s real husband returned. It was later subdued by the Lady of the Water and became subservient as her deputy deity and assistant, “Danxia the Great Sage.”
Hong Mai’s supernatural stories in the “Yi Jian Zhi” also recorded that a monkey king spread a plague in the area. Those initially infected would exhibit symptoms similar to a cold, then gradually go mad, refusing to eat. Patients would climb high places like fences and tree trunks and jump down, often resulting in death. With the epidemic spreading, many children were affected, causing panic among the people. Out of fear, people worshipped the monkey king to ward off the disease.
We can see that during the Tang and Song periods, the people along the coast of Fujian developed a belief in the monkey god out of fear and incomprehension of nature. This monkey god’s evil and unlawful behavior can be said to be completely malevolent. The reverence and worship of the people was full of helplessness and resentment.
Rise of the Great Sage belief after the spread of Journey to the West:
Even before Wu Cheng’en wrote “Journey to the West” 200 years ago, the name of the Great Sage Equal to Heaven appeared in Yuan Dynasty folk plays. In the plays “Journey to the West” and “Erlang Shen Captures the Great Sage Equal to Heaven,” this monkey god had brothers and sisters, including the eldest sister Lishan Laomo, the second sister Wuzhizhi Shengmu, the elder brother Qitian Dasheng, the younger brother Tongtian Dasheng, and the third brother Luoluo Sanlang. At this time, the Great Sage Equal to Heaven seemed to have a prosperous family but average abilities. They were defeated directly by Erlang Shen and Meishan Six Sages, and the Great Sage was even captured on the spot, unlike in the Ming Dynasty’s “Journey to the West,” where a siege and ambush were necessary.
Regardless, after the creation of Sun Wukong as the Great Sage Equal to Heaven, the detailed descriptions by novelists and the vivid interpretations by storytellers brought the story to life. People quickly grew fond of this mischievous monkey god. As an important entertainment project in the Yuan and Ming periods, folk plays and novels spread rapidly in society, making people of all ages across the country aware of Sun Wukong’s deeds. With the release of Wu Cheng’en’s “Journey to the West,” the trend gained even more momentum.
In this environment, the local people of Fujian naturally associated their original monkey god with Sun Wukong. Compared to the fierce and malicious local monkey god, Sun Wukong was undoubtedly more lovable. Over time, people gradually transferred their fear and reverence from the apes and monkeys to the Great Sage Equal to Heaven.
By the end of the Yuan Dynasty and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, the belief in the Great Sage Equal to Heaven began to emerge. On the main peak of Baoshan in northwest Shunchang County, Fujian, the burial site of the two brothers Qitian Dasheng and Tongtian Dasheng from that time is still preserved. This can be considered the earliest image of the Great Sage Equal to Heaven among the people.
In the Ming and Qing periods, many local Monkey King temples were renamed as temples dedicated to the Great Sage Equal to Heaven, with the majestic and divine Great Sage replacing the fierce local monkey god. The crowds of worshippers grew, and the even more thriving incense silently indicated that people seemed very pleased with this change.
Earlier temples in different eras revered the Great Sage Equal to Heaven and Tongtian Dasheng, while later temples mostly only revered the Great Sage Equal to Heaven and his manifestations. Due to the deep-rooted ape and monkey beliefs, some original monkey gods continued to exist. For example, the famous Danxia Dasheng was preserved along with the Lady of the Water’s beliefs, becoming a witness to the ancient coastal beliefs.
Continuation of belief amidst criticism:
For the distant Central Court and officials and literati, the belief in the Great Sage in Fujian and other places became a matter of ridicule. They found it astonishing that the common people actually believed in characters from a supernatural novel like “Journey to the West,” calling it “shocking.”
Some officials in the Qing Dynasty even considered this a “licentious worship” and “indecent temple” that should be banned. Under the orders of local officials at the time, several temples dedicated to the Great Sage were destroyed by soldiers. In the 1920s and 1930s during the New Life Movement of the Republic of China government, many Great Sage temples were demolished, and other traditional temples like Dragon Kings, City Gods, and Earth Deities were not spared from destruction.
These “high officials” did not analyze the reasons for the emergence of the belief in the Great Sage nor discuss the inheritance of local culture. They only took a “destroy” approach to the matter. As a result, after the fact, the people were filled with emotions, and quickly and secretly rebuilt what was destroyed. Some local officials, under pressure from the people, had no choice but to turn a blind eye to the rebuilding, or even had officials assist the public in the reconstruction of the temples to avoid future enforcement issues.
In the hearts of the people, Sun Wukong has become the local protective deity. In the longstanding folk culture, the Great Sage is much more endearing than the previous monkey gods and has many miraculous powers:
1. The Great Sage drives away evil spirits and demons and protects the land and the people. While managing all local affairs, he is particularly adept at intimidating fox demons and other monsters, making them not dare to commit mischief in the area.
2. The Great Sage protects examinees and oversees the imperial examinations. Even now, during the college entrance exams, many parents come to seek divination and blessings, praying for success in the exams.
3. The Great Sage is also the god of wealth for the people. It is said that during the Republic of China period, a gambler made a wish at the Great Sage temple before organizing a gambling event. Later, his wish came true, sparking a wave of temple visits. Merchants who traveled far to conduct business, facing great risks, also worshipped the Great Sage for protection. Some even took amulets from the temple or carried images of the Great Sage throughout their journey.
4. The Great Sage can heal ailments and prevent disasters. During a disease outbreak in Qing Dynasty Fujian, a village was able to eliminate the disease through the guidance of the Great Sage temple, leading to prayers and offerings in various regions.
From belief to culture:
In modern times, with advances in technology, the belief in the Great Sage remains strong in Fujian, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia.
This traditional belief has gradually lost its religious significance but remains a spiritual support for people under life’s pressures. For the younger generation, various lively and grand sacrificial activities have become a popular social culture.
It is this culture that creates a common consciousness among Chinese communities and maintains the blood connection of the Chinese people.
Belief in the Great Sage by Chinese communities in various regions:
On the island of Taiwan, worship of Sun Wukong is very common. Wherever there is a Guanyin temple, the Great Sage will also be worshipped as an attendant deity. For example, the Lady of the Water Temple in Tainan. In some temples, the Great Sage himself is the main deity, such as the Shengde Palace in Taipei and the Zi Yun Temple in Yilan.
The image of the Great Sage in Taiwan differs slightly from that of the mainland, as he is not primarily seen as a god who subdues demons and monsters but as a deity of medicine in people’s hearts. If a child has poor development or malnutrition, they will be taken by their family to worship the Great Sage, believed to bring health to the body and mind. If a child is overly active and restless, people in the area
